Teorema dei numeri primi

Prime number theorem This article utilizes technical mathematical notation for logarithms. All instances of log(X) without a subscript base should be interpreted as a natural logarithm, commonly notated as ln(X) or loge(X).

In matematica, the prime number theorem (PNT) describes the asymptotic distribution of the prime numbers among the positive integers. It formalizes the intuitive idea that primes become less common as they become larger by precisely quantifying the rate at which this occurs. The theorem was proved independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin in 1896 using ideas introduced by Bernhard Riemann (in particolare, the Riemann zeta function).

The first such distribution found is π(N) ~ N / tronco d'albero(N) , where π(N) is the prime-counting function (the number of primes less than or equal to N) e log(N) is the natural logarithm of N. This means that for large enough N, the probability that a random integer not greater than N is prime is very close to 1 / tronco d'albero(N). Di conseguenza, a random integer with at most 2n digits (for large enough n) is about half as likely to be prime as a random integer with at most n digits. Per esempio, among the positive integers of at most 1000 digits, about one in 2300 è primo (tronco d'albero(101000) ≈ 2302.6), whereas among positive integers of at most 2000 digits, about one in 4600 è primo (tronco d'albero(102000) ≈ 4605.2). In altre parole, the average gap between consecutive prime numbers among the first N integers is roughly log(N).[1] Contenuti 1 Dichiarazione 2 History of the proof of the asymptotic law of prime numbers 3 Schizzo di prova 3.1 Non-vanishing on Re(S) = 1 4 Newman's proof of the prime number theorem 5 Prime-counting function in terms of the logarithmic integral 6 Elementary proofs 7 Computer verifications 8 Prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions 8.1 Prime number race 9 Non-asymptotic bounds on the prime-counting function 10 Approximations for the nth prime number 11 Table of π(X), X / registro x, and li(X) 12 Analogue for irreducible polynomials over a finite field 13 Guarda anche 14 Riferimenti 15 Fonti 16 External links Statement Graph showing ratio of the prime-counting function π(X) to two of its approximations, X / log x and Li(X). As x increases (note x axis is logarithmic), both ratios tend towards 1. The ratio for x / log x converges from above very slowly, while the ratio for Li(X) converges more quickly from below. Log-log plot showing absolute error of x / log x and Li(X), two approximations to the prime-counting function π(X). Unlike the ratio, the difference between π(X) e x / log x increases without bound as x increases. D'altro canto, Li(X) − π(X) switches sign infinitely many times.

Let π(X) be the prime-counting function defined to be the number of primes less than or equal to x, for any real number x. Per esempio, Pi(10) = 4 because there are four prime numbers (2, 3, 5 e 7) less than or equal to 10. The prime number theorem then states that x / log x is a good approximation to π(X) (where log here means the natural logarithm), in the sense that the limit of the quotient of the two functions π(X) e x / log x as x increases without bound is 1: {displaystyle lim _{xto infty }{frac {;pi (X);}{;sinistra[{frac {X}{tronco d'albero(X)}}Giusto];}}=1,} known as the asymptotic law of distribution of prime numbers. Using asymptotic notation this result can be restated as {stile di visualizzazione pi (X)sim {frac {X}{registro x}}.} This notation (and the theorem) does not say anything about the limit of the difference of the two functions as x increases without bound. Invece, the theorem states that x / log x approximates π(X) in the sense that the relative error of this approximation approaches 0 as x increases without bound.

The prime number theorem is equivalent to the statement that the nth prime number pn satisfies {stile di visualizzazione p_{n}sim nlog(n),} the asymptotic notation meaning, ancora, that the relative error of this approximation approaches 0 as n increases without bound. Per esempio, the 2×1017th prime number is 8512677386048191063,[2] e (2×1017)tronco d'albero(2×1017) rounds to 7967418752291744388, a relative error of about 6.4%.

D'altro canto, the following asymptotic relations are logically equivalent[3] {stile di visualizzazione {inizio{allineato}lim _{xrightarrow infty }{frac {pi (X)registro x}{X}}=&1,\lim _{xrightarrow infty }{frac {pi (X)log pi (X)}{X}}=&1.end{allineato}}} As outlined below, the prime number theorem is also equivalent to {displaystyle lim _{xto infty }{frac {vartheta (X)}{X}}=lim _{xto infty }{frac {psi (X)}{X}}=1,} where ϑ and ψ are the first and the second Chebyshev functions respectively, e a {displaystyle lim _{xto infty }{frac {M(X)}{X}}=0,} [4] dove {stile di visualizzazione M(X)=somma _{nleq x}in (n)} is the Mertens function.

History of the proof of the asymptotic law of prime numbers Based on the tables by Anton Felkel and Jurij Vega, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured in 1797 o 1798 that π(un) is approximated by the function a / (A log a + B), where A and B are unspecified constants. In the second edition of his book on number theory (1808) he then made a more precise conjecture, with A = 1 and B = −1.08366. Carl Friedrich Gauss considered the same question at age 15 o 16 "in the year 1792 o 1793", according to his own recollection in 1849.[5] In 1838 Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet came up with his own approximating function, the logarithmic integral li(X) (under the slightly different form of a series, which he communicated to Gauss). Both Legendre's and Dirichlet's formulas imply the same conjectured asymptotic equivalence of π(X) e x / tronco d'albero(X) stated above, although it turned out that Dirichlet's approximation is considerably better if one considers the differences instead of quotients.

In two papers from 1848 e 1850, the Russian mathematician Pafnuty Chebyshev attempted to prove the asymptotic law of distribution of prime numbers. His work is notable for the use of the zeta function ζ(S), for real values of the argument "S", as in works of Leonhard Euler, as early as 1737. Chebyshev's papers predated Riemann's celebrated memoir of 1859, and he succeeded in proving a slightly weaker form of the asymptotic law, vale a dire, that if the limit as x goes to infinity of π(X) / (X / tronco d'albero(X)) esiste affatto, then it is necessarily equal to one.[6] He was able to prove unconditionally that this ratio is bounded above and below by two explicitly given constants near 1, for all sufficiently large x.[7] Although Chebyshev's paper did not prove the Prime Number Theorem, his estimates for π(X) were strong enough for him to prove Bertrand's postulate that there exists a prime number between n and 2n for any integer n ≥ 2.

An important paper concerning the distribution of prime numbers was Riemann's 1859 memoir "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude", the only paper he ever wrote on the subject. Riemann introduced new ideas into the subject, chiefly that the distribution of prime numbers is intimately connected with the zeros of the analytically extended Riemann zeta function of a complex variable. In particolare, it is in this paper that the idea to apply methods of complex analysis to the study of the real function π(X) originates. Extending Riemann's ideas, two proofs of the asymptotic law of the distribution of prime numbers were found independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin and appeared in the same year (1896). Both proofs used methods from complex analysis, establishing as a main step of the proof that the Riemann zeta function ζ(S) is nonzero for all complex values of the variable s that have the form s = 1 + it with t > 0.[8] During the 20th century, the theorem of Hadamard and de la Vallée Poussin also became known as the Prime Number Theorem. Several different proofs of it were found, including the "elementary" proofs of Atle Selberg and Paul Erdős (1949). Hadamard's and de la Vallée Poussin's original proofs are long and elaborate; later proofs introduced various simplifications through the use of Tauberian theorems but remained difficult to digest. A short proof was discovered in 1980 by the American mathematician Donald J. Newman.[9][10] Newman's proof is arguably the simplest known proof of the theorem, although it is non-elementary in the sense that it uses Cauchy's integral theorem from complex analysis.

Proof sketch Here is a sketch of the proof referred to in one of Terence Tao's lectures.[11] Like most proofs of the PNT, it starts out by reformulating the problem in terms of a less intuitive, but better-behaved, prime-counting function. The idea is to count the primes (or a related set such as the set of prime powers) with weights to arrive at a function with smoother asymptotic behavior. The most common such generalized counting function is the Chebyshev function ψ(X), definito da {stile di visualizzazione psi (X)=!!!!somma _{pila {p^{K}leq x,}{p{testo{ è primo}}}}!!!!registro pag;.} This is sometimes written as {stile di visualizzazione psi (X)=somma _{nleq x}Lambda (n);,} where Λ(n) is the von Mangoldt function, vale a dire {displaystyle Lambda (n)={inizio{casi}log p&{testo{ Se }}n=p^{K}{testo{ for some prime }}p{testo{ and integer }}kgeq 1,\0&{testo{otherwise.}}fine{casi}}} It is now relatively easy to check that the PNT is equivalent to the claim that {displaystyle lim _{xto infty }{frac {psi (X)}{X}}=1;.} Infatti, this follows from the easy estimates {stile di visualizzazione psi (X)=somma _{pila {pleq x}{p{testo{ è primo}}}}log pleftlfloor {frac {registro x}{registro pag}}rightrfloor leq sum _{pila {pleq x}{p{testo{ è primo}}}}log x=pi (X)registro x} e (using big O notation) for any ε > 0, {stile di visualizzazione psi (X)geq !!!!somma _{pila {x^{1-varepsilon }leq pleq x}{p{testo{ è primo}}}}!!!!log pgeq !!!!somma _{pila {x^{1-varepsilon }leq pleq x}{p{testo{ è primo}}}}!!!!(1-varepsilon )log x=(1-varepsilon )sinistra(pi (X)+Oleft(x^{1-varepsilon }Giusto)Giusto)registro x;.} The next step is to find a useful representation for ψ(X). Let ζ(S) be the Riemann zeta function. It can be shown that ζ(S) is related to the von Mangoldt function Λ(n), and hence to ψ(X), via the relation {stile di visualizzazione -{frac {zeta '(S)}{zeta (S)}}=somma _{n=1}^{infty }Lambda (n),n^{-S};.} A delicate analysis of this equation and related properties of the zeta function, using the Mellin transform and Perron's formula, shows that for non-integer x the equation {stile di visualizzazione psi (X)=x;-;tronco d'albero(2pi );-limiti di somma _{rho :,zeta (rho )=0}{frac {x^{rho }}{rho }}} tiene, where the sum is over all zeros (trivial and nontrivial) of the zeta function. This striking formula is one of the so-called explicit formulas of number theory, and is already suggestive of the result we wish to prove, since the term x (claimed to be the correct asymptotic order of ψ(X)) appears on the right-hand side, followed by (presumably) lower-order asymptotic terms.

The next step in the proof involves a study of the zeros of the zeta function. The trivial zeros −2, −4, −6, −8, ... can be handled separately: {somma dello stile di visualizzazione _{n=1}^{infty }{frac {1}{2n,x^{2n}}}=-{frac {1}{2}}registro a sinistra(1-{frac {1}{x^{2}}}Giusto),} which vanishes for a large x. The nontrivial zeros, namely those on the critical strip 0 ≤ Re(S) ≤ 1, can potentially be of an asymptotic order comparable to the main term x if Re(r) = 1, so we need to show that all zeros have real part strictly less than 1.

Non-vanishing on Re(S) = 1 To do this, we take for granted that ζ(S) is meromorphic in the half-plane Re(S) > 0, and is analytic there except for a simple pole at s = 1, and that there is a product formula {displaystyle zeta (S)=prodotto _{p}{frac {1}{1-p^{-S}}}} for Re(S) > 1. This product formula follows from the existence of unique prime factorization of integers, and shows that ζ(S) is never zero in this region, so that its logarithm is defined there and {displaystyle log zeta (S)=-sum _{p}registro a sinistra(1-p^{-S}Giusto)=somma _{p,n}{frac {p^{-ns}}{n}};.} Write s = x + iy ; poi {stile di visualizzazione {grande |}zeta (x+iy){grande |}=exp a sinistra(somma _{n,p}{frac {cos nylog p}{np^{nx}}}Giusto);.} Now observe the identity {displaystyle 3+4cos phi +cos 2phi =2(1+cos phi )^{2}geq 0;,} affinché {stile di visualizzazione a sinistra|zeta (X)^{3}zeta (x+iy)^{4}zeta (x+2iy)Giusto|=exp a sinistra(somma _{n,p}{frac {3+4cos(nylog p)+cos(2nylog p)}{np^{nx}}}Giusto)geq 1} for all x > 1. Suppose now that ζ(1 + iy) = 0. Certainly y is not zero, since ζ(S) has a simple pole at s = 1. Suppose that x > 1 and let x tend to 1 from above. Da {displaystyle zeta (S)} has a simple pole at s = 1 and ζ(X + 2iy) stays analytic, the left hand side in the previous inequality tends to 0, una contraddizione.

Infine, we can conclude that the PNT is heuristically true. To rigorously complete the proof there are still serious technicalities to overcome, due to the fact that the summation over zeta zeros in the explicit formula for ψ(X) does not converge absolutely but only conditionally and in a "principal value" sense. There are several ways around this problem but many of them require rather delicate complex-analytic estimates. Edwards's book[12] provides the details. Another method is to use Ikehara's Tauberian theorem, though this theorem is itself quite hard to prove. D.J. Newman observed that the full strength of Ikehara's theorem is not needed for the prime number theorem, and one can get away with a special case that is much easier to prove.

Newman's proof of the prime number theorem D. J. Newman gives a quick proof of the prime number theorem (PNT). The proof is "non-elementary" by virtue of relying on complex analysis, but uses only elementary techniques from a first course in the subject: Cauchy's integral formula, Cauchy's integral theorem and estimates of complex integrals. Here is a brief sketch of this proof. Vedere [10] for the complete details.

The proof uses the same preliminaries as in the previous section except instead of the function {textstyle psi } , the Chebyshev function {textstyle quad vartheta (X)=somma _{pleq x}registro pag} viene usato, which is obtained by dropping some of the terms from the series for {textstyle psi } . It is easy to show that the PNT is equivalent to {displaystyle lim _{xto infty }vartheta (X)/x=1} . Likewise instead of {stile di visualizzazione -{frac {zeta '(S)}{zeta (S)}}} the function {stile di visualizzazione Phi (S)=somma _{pleq x}registro pag,,p^{-S}} viene usato, which is obtained by dropping some terms in the series for {stile di visualizzazione -{frac {zeta '(S)}{zeta (S)}}} . Le funzioni {stile di visualizzazione Phi (S)} e {displaystyle -zeta '(S)/zeta (S)} differ by a function holomorphic on {displaystyle Re s=1} . Da, as was shown in the previous section, {displaystyle zeta (S)} has no zeroes on the line {displaystyle Re s=1} , {stile di visualizzazione Phi (S)-{frac {1}{s-1}}} has no singularities on {displaystyle Re s=1} .

One further piece of information needed in Newman's proof, and which is the key to the estimates in his simple method, is that {displaystyle vartheta (X)/X} è delimitato. This is proved using an ingenious and easy method due to Chebyshev.

Integration by parts shows how {displaystyle vartheta (X)} e {stile di visualizzazione Phi (S)} are related. Per {displaystyle Re s>1} , {stile di visualizzazione Phi (S)=int _{1}^{infty }x^{-S}dvartheta (X)=sint _{1}^{infty }vartheta (X)x^{-s-1},dx=sint _{0}^{infty }vartheta (e^{t})e^{-st},dt.} Newman's method proves the PNT by showing the integral {displaystyle I=int _{0}^{infty }sinistra({frac {vartheta (e^{t})}{e^{t}}}-1Giusto),dt.} converge, and therefore the integrand goes to zero as {displaystyle tto infty } , which is the PNT. In generale, the convergence of the improper integral does not imply that the integrand goes to zero at infinity, since it may oscillate, but since {displaystyle vartheta } is increasing, it is easy to show in this case.

To show the convergence of {stile di visualizzazione I} , per {displaystyle Re z>0} permettere {stile di visualizzazione g_{T}(z)=int _{0}^{T}f(t)e^{-zt},dt} e {stile di visualizzazione g(z)=int _{0}^{infty }f(t)e^{-zt},dt} dove {stile di visualizzazione f(t)={frac {vartheta (e^{t})}{e^{t}}}-1} poi {displaystyle lim _{Tto infty }g_{T}(z)=g(z)={frac {Phi (S)}{S}}-{frac {1}{s-1}}quadruplo {testo{dove}}quad z=s-1} which is equal to a function holomorphic on the line {displaystyle Re z=0} .

The convergence of the integral {stile di visualizzazione I} , and thus the PNT, is proved by showing that {displaystyle lim _{Tto infty }g_{T}(0)=g(0)} . This involves change of order of limits since it can be written {textstyle lim _{Tto infty }lim _{zto 0}g_{T}(z)=lim _{zto 0}lim _{Tto infty }g_{T}(z)} and therefore classified as a Tauberian theorem.

La differenza {stile di visualizzazione g(0)-g_{T}(0)} is expressed using Cauchy's integral formula and then shown to be small for {stile di visualizzazione T} large by estimating the integrand. Fix {displaystyle R>0} e {displaystyle delta >0} tale che {stile di visualizzazione g(z)} is holomorphic in the region where {stile di visualizzazione |z|leq R{testo{ e }}Re zgeq -delta } , e lascia {stile di visualizzazione C} be the boundary of this region. Da 0 is in the interior of the region, Cauchy's integral formula gives {stile di visualizzazione g(0)-g_{T}(0)={frac {1}{2pi io}}int _{C}sinistra(g(z)-g_{T}(z)Giusto){frac {dz}{z}}={frac {1}{2pi io}}int _{C}sinistra(g(z)-g_{T}(z)Giusto)F(z){frac {dz}{z}}} dove {stile di visualizzazione F(z)=e^{zT}sinistra(1+{frac {z^{2}}{R^{2}}}Giusto)} is the factor introduced by Newman, which does not change the integral since {stile di visualizzazione F} is entire and {stile di visualizzazione F(0)=1} .

To estimate the integral, break the contour {stile di visualizzazione C} into two parts, {displaystyle C=C_{+}+C_{-}} dove {stile di visualizzazione C_{+}=Ccap left{z,vert ,Re z>0right}} e {stile di visualizzazione C_{-}cap left{Re zleq 0right}} . Quindi {stile di visualizzazione g(0)-g_{T}(0)=int _{C_{+}}int _{T}^{infty }H(t,z)dtdz-int _{C_{-}}int _{0}^{T}H(t,z)dtdz+int _{C_{-}}g(z)F(z){frac {dz}{2pi iz}}} dove {stile di visualizzazione H(t,z)=f(t)e^{-tz}F(z)/2pi io} . Da {displaystyle vartheta (X)/X} , e quindi {stile di visualizzazione f(t)} , è delimitato, permettere {stile di visualizzazione B} be an upper bound for the absolute value of {stile di visualizzazione f(t)} . This bound together with the estimate {stile di visualizzazione |F|leq 2exp(TRe z)|Re z|/R} per {stile di visualizzazione |z|=R} gives that the first integral in absolute value is {displaystyle leq B/R} . The integrand over {stile di visualizzazione C_{-}} in the second integral is entire, so by Cauchy's integral theorem, the contour {stile di visualizzazione C_{-}} can be modified to a semicircle of radius {stile di visualizzazione R} in the left half-plane without changing the integral, and the same argument as for the first integral gives the absolute value of the second integral is {displaystyle leq B/R} . Infine, letting {displaystyle Tto infty } , the third integral goes to zero since {stile di visualizzazione e^{zT}} e quindi {stile di visualizzazione F} goes to zero on the contour. Combining the two estimates and the limit get {displaystyle limsup _{Tto infty }|g(0)-g_{T}(0)|leq {frac {2B}{R}}.} This holds for any {stile di visualizzazione R} Così {displaystyle lim _{Tto infty }g_{T}(0)=g(0)} , and the PNT follows.

Prime-counting function in terms of the logarithmic integral In a handwritten note on a reprint of his 1838 carta "Sur l'usage des séries infinies dans la théorie des nombres", which he mailed to Gauss, Dirichlet conjectured (under a slightly different form appealing to a series rather than an integral) that an even better approximation to π(X) is given by the offset logarithmic integral function Li(X), definito da {nome dell'operatore dello stile di visualizzazione {Li} (X)=int _{2}^{X}{frac {dt}{log t}}=nome operatore {li} (X)-nome operatore {li} (2).} Infatti, this integral is strongly suggestive of the notion that the "densità" of primes around t should be 1 / log t. This function is related to the logarithm by the asymptotic expansion {nome dell'operatore dello stile di visualizzazione {Li} (X)sim {frac {X}{registro x}}somma _{k=0}^{infty }{frac {K!}{(registro x)^{K}}}={frac {X}{registro x}}+{frac {X}{(registro x)^{2}}}+{frac {2X}{(registro x)^{3}}}+cdot } Così, the prime number theorem can also be written as π(X) ~ Li(X). Infatti, in another paper in 1899 de la Vallée Poussin proved that {stile di visualizzazione pi (X)=nome operatore {Li} (X)+Oleft(xe^{-un{mq {registro x}}}Giusto)quad {testo{come }}xto infty } for some positive constant a, where O(...) is the big O notation. This has been improved to {stile di visualizzazione pi (X)=nome operatore {li} (X)+Oleft(xexp a sinistra(-{frac {UN(registro x)^{frac {3}{5}}}{(log log x)^{frac {1}{5}}}}Giusto)Giusto)} dove {displaystyle A=0.2098} .[13] In 2016, Trudgian proved an explicit upper bound for the difference between {stile di visualizzazione pi (X)} e {nome dell'operatore dello stile di visualizzazione {li} (X)} : {stile di visualizzazione {grande |}pi (X)-nome operatore {li} (X){grande |}leq 0.2795{frac {X}{(registro x)^{3/4}}}esp a sinistra(-{mq {frac {registro x}{6.455}}}Giusto)} per {displaystyle xgeq 229} .[14] The connection between the Riemann zeta function and π(X) is one reason the Riemann hypothesis has considerable importance in number theory: if established, it would yield a far better estimate of the error involved in the prime number theorem than is available today. Più specificamente, Helge von Koch showed in 1901[15] that if the Riemann hypothesis is true, the error term in the above relation can be improved to {stile di visualizzazione pi (X)=nome operatore {Li} (X)+Oleft({mq {X}}log xright)} (this last estimate is in fact equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis). The constant involved in the big O notation was estimated in 1976 by Lowell Schoenfeld:[16] assuming the Riemann hypothesis, {stile di visualizzazione {grande |}pi (X)-nome operatore {li} (X){grande |}<{frac {{sqrt {x}}log x}{8pi }}} for all x ≥ 2657. He also derived a similar bound for the Chebyshev prime-counting function ψ: {displaystyle {big |}psi (x)-x{big |}<{frac {{sqrt {x}}(log x)^{2}}{8pi }}} for all x ≥ 73.2 . This latter bound has been shown to express a variance to mean power law (when regarded as a random function over the integers) and 1 /  f  noise and to also correspond to the Tweedie compound Poisson distribution. (The Tweedie distributions represent a family of scale invariant distributions that serve as foci of convergence for a generalization of the central limit theorem.[17]) The logarithmic integral li(x) is larger than π(x) for "small" values of x. This is because it is (in some sense) counting not primes, but prime powers, where a power pn of a prime p is counted as 1 /  n  of a prime. This suggests that li(x) should usually be larger than π(x) by roughly {displaystyle {tfrac {1}{2}}operatorname {li} ({sqrt {x}}) ,} and in particular should always be larger than π(x). However, in 1914, J. E. Littlewood proved that {displaystyle pi (x)-operatorname {li} (x) } changes sign infinitely often.[18] The first value of x where π(x) exceeds li(x) is probably around x ~ 10316 ; see the article on Skewes' number for more details. (On the other hand, the offset logarithmic integral Li(x) is smaller than π(x) already for x = 2; indeed, Li(2) = 0, while π(2) = 1.) Elementary proofs In the first half of the twentieth century, some mathematicians (notably G. H. Hardy) believed that there exists a hierarchy of proof methods in mathematics depending on what sorts of numbers (integers, reals, complex) a proof requires, and that the prime number theorem (PNT) is a "deep" theorem by virtue of requiring complex analysis.[19] This belief was somewhat shaken by a proof of the PNT based on Wiener's tauberian theorem, though this could be set aside if Wiener's theorem were deemed to have a "depth" equivalent to that of complex variable methods. In March 1948, Atle Selberg established, by "elementary" means, the asymptotic formula {displaystyle vartheta (x)log(x)+sum limits _{pleq x}{log(p)} vartheta left({frac {x}{p}}right)=2xlog(x)+O(x)} where {displaystyle vartheta (x)=sum limits _{pleq x}{log(p)}} for primes p.[20] By July of that year, Selberg and Paul Erdős had each obtained elementary proofs of the PNT, both using Selberg's asymptotic formula as a starting point.[19][21] These proofs effectively laid to rest the notion that the PNT was "deep" in that sense, and showed that technically "elementary" methods were more powerful than had been believed to be the case. On the history of the elementary proofs of the PNT, including the Erdős–Selberg priority dispute, see an article by Dorian Goldfeld.[19] There is some debate about the significance of Erdős and Selberg's result. There is no rigorous and widely accepted definition of the notion of elementary proof in number theory, so it is not clear exactly in what sense their proof is "elementary". Although it does not use complex analysis, it is in fact much more technical than the standard proof of PNT. One possible definition of an "elementary" proof is "one that can be carried out in first-order Peano arithmetic." There are number-theoretic statements (for example, the Paris–Harrington theorem) provable using second order but not first-order methods, but such theorems are rare to date. Erdős and Selberg's proof can certainly be formalized in Peano arithmetic, and in 1994, Charalambos Cornaros and Costas Dimitracopoulos proved that their proof can be formalized in a very weak fragment of PA, namely IΔ0 + exp.[22] However, this does not address the question of whether or not the standard proof of PNT can be formalized in PA. Computer verifications In 2005, Avigad et al. employed the Isabelle theorem prover to devise a computer-verified variant of the Erdős–Selberg proof of the PNT.[23] This was the first machine-verified proof of the PNT. Avigad chose to formalize the Erdős–Selberg proof rather than an analytic one because while Isabelle's library at the time could implement the notions of limit, derivative, and transcendental function, it had almost no theory of integration to speak of.[23]: 19  In 2009, John Harrison employed HOL Light to formalize a proof employing complex analysis.[24] By developing the necessary analytic machinery, including the Cauchy integral formula, Harrison was able to formalize "a direct, modern and elegant proof instead of the more involved 'elementary' Erdős–Selberg argument". Prime number theorem for arithmetic progressions Let πd,a(x) denote the number of primes in the arithmetic progression a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, ... that are less than x. Dirichlet and Legendre conjectured, and de la Vallée Poussin proved, that if a and d are coprime, then {displaystyle pi _{d,a}(x)sim {frac {operatorname {Li} (x)}{varphi (d)}} ,} where φ is Euler's totient function. In other words, the primes are distributed evenly among the residue classes [a] modulo d with gcd(a, d) = 1 . This is stronger than Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions (which only states that there is an infinity of primes in each class) and can be proved using similar methods used by Newman for his proof of the prime number theorem.[25] The Siegel–Walfisz theorem gives a good estimate for the distribution of primes in residue classes. Bennett et al. [26] proved the following estimate that has explicit constants A and B (Theorem 1.3): Let d {displaystyle geq 3} be an integer and let a be an integer that is coprime to d. Then there are positive constants A and B such that {displaystyle left|pi _{d,a}(x)-{frac { operatorname {Li} (x) }{ varphi (d) }}right|<{frac {A x}{ (log x)^{2} }}quad {text{ for all }}quad xgeq B ,} where {displaystyle A={frac {1}{ 840 }}quad {text{ if }}quad 3leq dleq 10^{4}quad {text{ and }}quad A={frac {1}{ 160 }}quad {text{ if }}quad d>10^{4}~,} e {displaystyle B=8cdot 10^{9}quad {testo{ Se }}quad 3leq dleq 10^{5}quad {testo{ e }}quad B=exp( 0.03 {mq {d }} (tronco d'albero {d})^{3} )quad {testo{ Se }}quad d>10^{5} .} Prime number race Plot of the function {stile di visualizzazione pi (X;4,3)-pi (X;4,1) } for n ≤ 30000 Although we have in particular {stile di visualizzazione pi _{4,1}(X)sim pi _{4,3}(X) ,} empirically the primes congruent to 3 are more numerous and are nearly always ahead in this "prime number race"; the first reversal occurs at x = 26861.[27]: 1–2  However Littlewood showed in 1914[27]: 2  that there are infinitely many sign changes for the function {stile di visualizzazione pi _{4,1}(X)-pi_{4,3}(X)~,} so the lead in the race switches back and forth infinitely many times. The phenomenon that π4,3(X) is ahead most of the time is called Chebyshev's bias. The prime number race generalizes to other moduli and is the subject of much research; Pál Turán asked whether it is always the case that π(X;un,c) and π(X;b,c) change places when a and b are coprime to c.[28] Granville and Martin give a thorough exposition and survey.[27] Non-asymptotic bounds on the prime-counting function The prime number theorem is an asymptotic result. It gives an ineffective bound on π(X) as a direct consequence of the definition of the limit: for all ε > 0, there is an S such that for all x > S, {stile di visualizzazione (1-varepsilon ){frac {X}{registro x}};<;pi (x);<;(1+varepsilon ){frac {x}{log x}};.} However, better bounds on π(x) are known, for instance Pierre Dusart's {displaystyle {frac {x}{log x}}left(1+{frac {1}{log x}}right);<;pi (x);<;{frac {x}{log x}}left(1+{frac {1}{log x}}+{frac {2.51}{(log x)^{2}}}right);.} The first inequality holds for all x ≥ 599 and the second one for x ≥ 355991.[29] A weaker but sometimes useful bound for x ≥ 55 is[30] {displaystyle {frac {x}{log x+2}};<;pi (x);<;{frac {x}{log x-4}};.} In Pierre Dusart's thesis there are stronger versions of this type of inequality that are valid for larger x. Later in 2010, Dusart proved:[31] {displaystyle {begin{aligned}{frac {x}{log x-1}};&<;pi (x)&&{text{ for }}xgeq 5393;,{text{ and }}\pi (x);&<;{frac {x}{log x-1.1}}&&{text{ for }}xgeq 60184;.end{aligned}}} The proof by de la Vallée Poussin implies the following: For every ε > 0, there is an S such that for all x > S, {stile di visualizzazione {frac {X}{log x-(1-varepsilon )}};<;pi (x);<;{frac {x}{log x-(1+varepsilon )}};.} Approximations for the nth prime number As a consequence of the prime number theorem, one gets an asymptotic expression for the nth prime number, denoted by pn: {displaystyle p_{n}sim nlog n.} A better approximation is[32] {displaystyle {frac {p_{n}}{n}}=log n+log log n-1+{frac {log log n-2}{log n}}-{frac {(log log n)^{2}-6log log n+11}{2(log n)^{2}}}+oleft({frac {1}{(log n)^{2}}}right).} Again considering the 2×1017th prime number 8512677386048191063, this gives an estimate of 8512681315554715386; the first 5 digits match and relative error is about 0.00005%. Rosser's theorem states that {displaystyle p_{n}>nlog n.} This can be improved by the following pair of bounds:[30] [33] {displaystyle log n+log log n-1<{frac {p_{n}}{n}}

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